Fallo de La Haya tema Botnia

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20 AVRIL 2010 ARRÊT AFFAIRE RELATIVE À DES USINES DE PÂTE À PAPIER SUR LE FLEUVE URUGUAY (ARGENTINE c. URUGUAY) ___________ CASE CONCERNING PULP MILLS ON THE RIVER URUGUAY (ARGENTINA v. URUGUAY) 20 APRIL 2010 JUDGMENT TABLE OF CONTENTS Paragraphs CHRONOLOGY OF THE PROCEDURE 1-24 I. LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND FACTS OF THE CASE 25-47 A. Legal framework 26-27 B. CMB (ENCE) Project 28-36 C. Orion (Botnia) mill 37-47 II. SCOPE OF THE COURT’S JURISDICTION 48-66 III. THE ALLEGED BREACH OF PROCEDURAL OBLIGATIONS 67-158 A. The links between the procedural obligations and the substantive obligations 71-79 B. The procedural obligations and their interrelation 80-122 1. The nature and role of CARU 84-93 2. Uruguay’s obligation to inform CARU 94-111 3. Uruguay’s obligation to notify the plans to the other party 112-122 C. Whether the Parties agreed to derogate from the procedural obligations set out in the 1975 Statute 123-150 1. The “understanding” of 2 March 2004 between Argentina and Uruguay 125-131 2. The agreement setting up the High-Level Technical Group (the GTAN) 132-150 D. Uruguay’s obligations following the end of the negotiation period 151-158 IV. SUBSTANTIVE OBLIGATIONS 159-266 A. Burden of proof and expert evidence 160-168 B. Alleged violations of substantive obligations 169-266 1. The obligation to contribute to the optimum and rational utilization of the river (Article 1) 170-177 2. The obligation to ensure that the management of the soil and woodland does not impair the régime of the river or the quality of its waters (Article 35) 178-180 3. The obligation to co-ordinate measures to avoid changes in the ecological balance (Article 36) 181-189 - ii - 4. The obligation to prevent pollution and preserve the aquatic environment (Article 41) 190-202 (a) Environmental Impact Assessment 203-219 (i) The siting of the Orion (Botnia) mill at Fray Bentos 207-214 (ii) Consultation of the affected populations 215-219 (b) Question of the production technology used in the Orion (Botnia) mill 220-228 © Impact of the discharges on the quality of the waters of the river 229-259 (i) Dissolved oxygen 238-239 (ii) Phosphorus 240-250 (iii) Phenolic substances 251-254 (iv) Presence of nonylphenols in the river environment 255-257 (v) Dioxins and furans 258-259 (d) Effects on biodiversity 260-262 (e) Air pollution 263-264 (f) Conclusions on Article 41 265 (g) Continuing obligations: monitoring 266 V. THE CLAIMS MADE BY THE PARTIES IN THEIR FINAL SUBMISSIONS 267-281 OPERATIVE CLAUSE 282 ___________ ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AAP “Autorización Ambiental Previa” (Initial environmental authorization) ADCP Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler AOX Adsorbable Organic Halogens BAT Best Available Techniques (or Technology) Botnia “Botnia S.A.” and “Botnia Fray Bentos S.A.” (two companies formed under Uruguayan law by the Finnish company Oy Metsä-Botnia AB) CARU “Comisión Administradora del Río Uruguay” (Administrative Commission of the River Uruguay) CIS Cumulative Impact Study (prepared in September 2006 at the request of the International Finance Corporation) CMB “Celulosas de M’Bopicuá S.A.” (a company formed under Uruguayan law by the Spanish company ENCE) CMB (ENCE) Pulp mill planned at Fray Bentos by the Spanish company ENCE, which formed the Uruguayan company CMB for that purpose DINAMA “Dirección Nacional de Medio Ambiente” (National Directorate for the Environment of the Uruguayan Government) ECF Elemental-Chlorine-Free EIA Environmental Impact Assessment ENCE “Empresa Nacional de Celulosas de España” (Spanish company which formed the company CMB under Uruguayan law) ESAP Environmental and Social Action Plan GTAN “Grupo Técnico de Alto Nivel” (High-Level Technical Group established in 2005 by Argentina and Uruguay to resolve their dispute over the CMB (ENCE) and Orion (Botnia) mills) IFC International Finance Corporation IPPC-BAT Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Pulp and Paper Industry MVOTMA “Ministerio de Vivienda, Ordenamiento Territorial y Medio Ambiente” (Uruguayan Ministry of Housing, Land Use Planning and Environmental Affairs) Orion (Botnia) Pulp mill built at Fray Bentos by the Finnish company Oy Metsä-Botnia AB, which formed the Uruguayan companies Botnia S.A. and Botnia Fray Bentos S.A. for that purpose OSE “Obras Sanitarias del Estado” (Uruguay’s State Agency for Sanitary Works) POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants PROCEL “Plan de Monitoreo de la Calidad Ambiental en el Río Uruguay en Áreas de Plantas Celulósicas” (Plan for monitoring water quality in the area of the pulp mills set up under CARU) PROCON “Programa de Calidad de Aguas y Control de la Contaminación del Río Uruguay” (Water quality and pollution control programme set up under CARU) ___________ INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE YEAR 2010 2010 20 April General List No. 135 20 April 2010 CASE CONCERNING PULP MILLS ON THE RIVER URUGUAY (ARGENTINA v. URUGUAY) Legal framework and facts of the case. 1961 Treaty of Montevideo — 1975 Statute of the River Uruguay ⎯ Establishment of the Administrative Commission of the River Uruguay (CARU) ⎯ CMB (ENCE) pulp mill project ⎯ Orion (Botnia) pulp mill project ⎯ Port terminal at Nueva Palmira — Subject of the dispute. * Scope of the Court’s jurisdiction. Compromissory clause (Article 60 of the 1975 Statute) — Provisions of the 1975 Statute and jurisdiction ratione materiae — Lack of jurisdiction for the Court to consider allegations concerning noise and visual pollution or bad odours (Article 36 of the 1975 Statute) — Air pollution and impact on the quality of the waters of the river addressed under substantive obligations. Article 1 of the 1975 Statute — Definition of the purpose of the 1975 Statute — Joint machinery necessary for the optimum and rational utilization of the river — Significance of the reference to the “rights and obligations arising from treaties and other international agreements in force for each of the parties” — Original Spanish text — Statute adopted by the parties in observance of their respective international commitments. - 2 - Article 41 (a) of the 1975 Statute — Original Spanish text — Absence of a “referral clause” having the effect of incorporating within the ambit of the Statute the obligations of the parties under international agreements and other norms envisaged in the Statute — Obligation for the parties to exercise their regulatory powers, in conformity with applicable international agreements, for the protection and preservation of the aquatic environment of the River Uruguay — Rules for interpreting the 1975 Statute — Article 31 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties — Distinction between taking account of other international rules in the interpretation of the 1975 Statute and the scope of the jurisdiction of the Court under Article 60 of the latter. * Alleged breach of procedural obligations. Question of links between the procedural obligations and the substantive obligations — Object and purpose of the 1975 Statute — Optimum and rational utilization of the River Uruguay — Sustainable development — Co-operation between the parties in jointly managing the risks of damage to the environment — Existence of a functional link, in regard to prevention, between the procedural obligations and the substantive obligations — Responsibility in the event of breaches of either category. Interrelation of the various procedural obligations laid down by Articles 7 to 12 of the 1975 Statute — Original Spanish text of Article 7 — Obligation to inform, notify and negotiate as an appropriate means of achieving the objective of optimum and rational utilization of the river as a shared resource — Legal personality of CARU — Central role of CARU in the joint management of the river and obligation of the parties to co-operate. Obligation to inform CARU (Article 7, first paragraph, of the 1975 Statute) — Works subject to this obligation — Link between the obligation to inform CARU, co-operation between the parties and the obligation of prevention — Determination by CARU on a preliminary basis of whether there is a risk of significant damage to the other party — Content of the information to be transmitted to CARU — Obligation to inform CARU before issuing of the initial environmental authorization — Provision of information to CARU by private operators cannot substitute for the obligation to inform laid down by the 1975 Statute — Breach by Uruguay of the obligation to inform CARU. Obligation to notify the plans to the other party (Article 7, second and third paragraphs, of the 1975 Statute) — Need for a full environmental impact assessment (EIA) — Notification of the EIA to the other party, through CARU, before any decision on the environmental viability of the plan — Breach by Uruguay of the obligation to notify the plans to Argentina. Question of whether the Parties agreed to derogate from the procedural obligations — “Understanding” of 2 March 2004 — Content and scope — Since Uruguay did not comply with it, the “understanding” cannot be regarded as having had the effect of exempting Uruguay from compliance with the procedural obligations — Agreement setting up the High-Level Technical - 3 - Group (GTAN) — Referral to the Court on the basis of Article 12 or Article 60 of the 1975 Statute: no practical distinction — The agreement to set up the GTAN had the aim of enabling the negotiations provided for in Article 12 of the 1975 Statute to take place, but did not derogate from other procedural obligations — In accepting the creation of the GTAN, Argentina did not give up the procedural rights belonging to it by virtue of the Statute, nor the possibility of invoking Uruguay’s responsibility; nor did Argentina consent to suspending the operation of the procedural provisions of the Statute (Article 57 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties) — Obligation to negotiate in good faith — “No construction obligation” during the negotiation period — Preliminary work approved by Uruguay — Breach by Uruguay of the obligation to negotiate laid down by Article 12 of the 1975 Statute. Obligations of Uruguay following the end of the negotiation period — Scope of Article 12 of the 1975 Statute — Absence of a “no construction obligation” following the end of the negotiation period and during the judicial settlement phase. * Alleged breaches of substantive obligations. Burden of proof — Precautionary approach without reversal of the burden of proof — Expert evidence — Reports commissioned by the Parties — Independence of experts — Consideration of the facts by the Court — Experts appearing as counsel at the hearings — Question of witnesses, experts and expert witnesses. Optimum and rational utilization of the River Uruguay — Article 1 of the 1975 Statute sets out the purpose of the instrument and does not lay down specific rights and obligations — Obligation to comply with the obligations prescribed by the Statute for the protection of the environment and the joint management of the river — Regulatory function of CARU — Interconnectedness between equitable and reasonable utilization of the river as a shared resource and the balance between economic development and environmental protection that is the essence of sustainable development (Article 27 of the 1975 Statute). Obligation to ensure that the management of the soil and woodland does not impair the régime of the river or the quality of its waters (Article 35 of the 1975 Statute) — Contentions of Argentina not established. Obligation to co-ordinate measures to avoid changes to the ecological balance (Article 36 of the 1975 Statute) — Requirement of individual action by each party and co-ordination through CARU — Obligation of due diligence — Argentina has not convincingly demonstrated that Uruguay has refused to engage in the co-ordination envisaged by Article 36 of the 1975 Statute. Obligation to prevent pollution and preserve the aquatic environment — Normative content of Article 41 of the 1975 Statute — Obligation for each party to adopt rules and measures to protect and preserve the aquatic environment and, in particular, to prevent pollution — The rules and measures prescribed by each party must be in accordance with applicable international agreements and in keeping, where relevant, with the guidelines and recommendations of - 4 - international technical bodies — Due diligence obligation to prescribe rules and measures and to apply them — Definition of pollution given in Article 40 of the 1975 Statute — Regulatory action of CARU (Article 56 of the 1975 Statute), complementing that of each party — CARU Digest — Rules by which the existence of any harmful effects is to be determined: 1975 Statute, CARU Digest, domestic law of each party within the limits prescribed by the 1975 Statute. Environmental impact assessment (EIA) — Obligation to conduct an EIA — Scope and content of the EIA — Referral to domestic law — Question of the choice of mill site as part of the EIA — The Court is not convinced by Argentina’s argument that an assessment of possible sites was not carried out — Receiving capacity of the river at Fray Bentos and reverse flows — The CARU water quality standards take account of the geomorphological and hydrological characteristics of the river and the receiving capacity of its waters — Question of consultation of the affected populations as part of the EIA — No legal obligation to consult the affected populations arises from the instruments invoked by Argentina — Consultation by Uruguay of the affected populations did indeed take place. Production technology used in the Orion (Botnia) mill — No evidence to support Argentina’s claim that the Orion (Botnia) mill is not BAT-compliant in terms of the discharges of effluent for each tonne of pulp produced — From the data collected after the start-up of the Orion (Botnia) mill, it does not appear that the discharges from it have exceeded the prescribed limits. Impact of the discharges on the quality of the waters of the river — Post-operational monitoring — Dissolved oxygen — Phosphorus — Algal blooms — Phenolic substances — Presence of nonylphenols in the river environment — Dioxins and furans — Alleged breaches not established. Effects on biodiversity — Insufficient evidence to conclude that Uruguay breached the obligation to protect the aquatic environment, including its fauna and flora. Air pollution — Indirect pollution from deposits into the aquatic environment — Insufficient evidence. On the basis of the evidence submitted, no breach by Uruguay of Article 41 of the 1975 Statute. Continuing obligations: monitoring — Obligation of the Parties to enable CARU to exercise on a continuous basis the powers conferred on it by the 1975 Statute — Obligation of Uruguay to continue monitoring the operation of the Orion (Botnia) plant — Obligation of the Parties to continue their co-operation through CARU. * - 5 - Claims made by the Parties in their final submissions. Claims of Argentina — Breach of procedural obligations — Finding of wrongful conduct and satisfaction — Forms of reparation other than compensation not excluded by the 1975 Statute — Restitution as a form of reparation for injury — Definition — Limits — Form of reparation appropriate to the injury suffered, taking into account the nature of the wrongful act — Restitution in the form of the dismantling of the Orion (Botnia) mill not appropriate where only breaches of procedural obligations have occurred — No breach of substantive obligations and rejection of Argentina’s other claims — No special circumstances requiring the ordering of assurances and guarantees of non-repetition. Uruguay’s request for confirmation of its right to continue operating the Orion (Botnia) plant — No practical significance. * Obligation of the Parties to co-operate with each other, on the terms set out in the 1975 Statute, to ensure the achievement of its object and purpose — Joint action of the Parties through CARU and establishment of a real community of interests and rights in the management of the River Uruguay and in the protection of its environment. JUDGMENT Present: Vice-President TOMKA, Acting President; Judges KOROMA, AL-KHASAWNEH, SIMMA, ABRAHAM, KEITH, SEPÚLVEDA-AMOR, BENNOUNA, SKOTNIKOV, CANÇADO TRINDADE, YUSUF, GREENWOOD; Judges ad hoc TORRES BERNÁRDEZ, VINUESA; Registrar COUVREUR. In the case concerning pulp mills on the River Uruguay, between the Argentine Republic, represented by H.E. Ms Susana Ruiz Cerutti, Ambassador, Legal Adviser to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship, as Agent; - 6 - H.E. Mr. Horacio A. Basabe, Ambassador, Director of the Argentine Institute for Foreign Service, former Legal Adviser to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship, Member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, H.E. Mr. Santos Goñi Marenco, Ambassador of the Argentine Republic to the Kingdom of the Netherlands, as Co-Agents; Mr. Alain Pellet, Professor at the University of Paris Ouest, Nanterre-La Défense, member and former Chairman of the International Law Commission, associate member of the Institut de droit international, Mr. Philippe Sands, Q.C., Professor of International Law at University College London, Barrister at Matrix Chambers, London, Mr. Marcelo Kohen, Professor of International Law at the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva, associate member of the Institut de droit international, Ms Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, Professor of International Law at the University of Geneva, Mr. Alan Béraud, Minister at the Embassy of the Argentine Republic to the European Union, former Legal Adviser to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship, Mr. Daniel Müller, Researcher at the Centre de droit international de Nanterre (CEDIN), University of Paris Ouest, Nanterre-La Défense, as Counsel and Advocates; Mr. Homero Bibiloni, Federal Secretary for the Environment and Sustainable Development, as Governmental Authority; Mr. Esteban Lyons, National Director of Environmental Control, Secretariat of the Environment and Sustainable Development, Mr. Howard Wheater, Ph.D. in Hydrology from Bristol University, Professor of Hydrology at Imperial College and Director of the Imperial College Environment Forum, Mr. Juan Carlos Colombo, Ph.D. in Oceanography from the University of Quebec, Professor at the Faculty of Sciences and Museum of the National University of La Plata, Director of the Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Biogeochemistry at the National University of La Plata, Mr. Neil McIntyre, Ph.D. in Environmental Engineering, Senior Lecturer in Hydrology at Imperial College London, - 7 - Ms Inés Camilloni, Ph.D. in Atmospheric Sciences, Professor of Atmospheric Sciences in the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Buenos Aires, Senior Researcher at the National Research Council (CONICET), Mr. Gabriel Raggio, Doctor in Technical Sciences of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETHZ) (Switzerland), Independent Consultant, as Scientific Advisers and Experts; Mr. Holger Martinsen, Minister at the Office of the Legal Adviser, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship, Mr. Mario Oyarzábal, Embassy Counsellor, member of the Office of the Legal Adviser, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship, Mr. Fernando Marani, Second Secretary, Embassy of the Argentine Republic in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Mr. Gabriel Herrera, Embassy Secretary, member of the Office of the Legal Adviser, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship, Ms Cynthia Mulville, Embassy Secretary, member of the Office of the Legal Adviser, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship, Ms Kate Cook, Barrister at Matrix Chambers, London, specializing in environmental law and law relating to development, Ms Mara Tignino, Ph.D. in Law, Researcher at the University of Geneva, Mr. Magnus Jesko Langer, teaching and research assistant, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva, as Legal Advisers, and the Eastern Republic of Uruguay, represented by H.E. Mr. Carlos Gianelli, Ambassador of the Eastern Republic of Uruguay to the United States of America, as Agent; H.E. Mr. Carlos Mora Medero, Ambassador of the Eastern Republic of Uruguay to the Kingdom of the Netherlands, as Co-Agent; - 8 - Mr. Alan Boyle, Professor of International Law at the University of Edinburgh, Member of the English Bar, Mr. Luigi Condorelli, Professor at the Faculty of Law, University of Florence, Mr. Lawrence H. Martin, Foley Hoag LLP, Member of the Bars of the United States Supreme Court, the District of Columbia and the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Mr. Stephen C. McCaffrey, Professor at the McGeorge School of Law, University of the Pacific, California, former Chairman of the International Law Commission and Special Rapporteur for the Commission’s work on the law of non-navigational uses of international watercourses, Mr. Alberto Pérez Pérez, Professor in the Faculty of Law, University of the Republic, Montevideo, Mr. Paul S. Reichler, Foley Hoag LLP, Member of the Bars of the United States Supreme Court and the District of Columbia, as Counsel and Advocates; Mr. Marcelo Cousillas, Legal Counsel at the National Directorate for the Environment, Ministry of Housing, Land Use Planning and Environmental Affairs, Mr. César Rodriguez Zavalla, Chief of Cabinet, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Mr. Carlos Mata, Deputy Director of Legal Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Mr. Marcelo Gerona, Counsellor at the Embassy of the Eastern Republic of Uruguay in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Mr. Eduardo Jiménez de Aréchaga, Attorney at law, admitted to the Bar of the Eastern Republic of Uruguay and Member of the Bar of New York, Mr. Adam Kahn, Foley Hoag LLP, Member of the Bar of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Mr. Andrew Loewenstein, Foley Hoag LLP, Member of the Bar of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Ms Analia Gonzalez, LL.M., Foley Hoag LLP, admitted to the Bar of the Eastern Republic of Uruguay, Ms Clara E. Brillembourg, Foley Hoag LLP, Member of the Bars of the District of Columbia and New York, Ms Cicely Parseghian, Foley Hoag LLP, Member of the Bar of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Mr. Pierre Harcourt, Ph.D. candidate, University of Edinburgh, - 9 - Mr. Paolo Palchetti, Associate Professor at the School of Law, University of Macerata, Ms Maria E. Milanes-Murcia, M.A., LL.M., J.S.D. Candidate at the McGeorge School of Law, University of the Pacific, California, Ph.D. Candidate, University of Murcia, admitted to the Bar of Spain, as Assistant Counsel; Ms Alicia Torres, National Director for the Environment at the Ministry of Housing, Land Use Planning and Environmental Affairs Mr. Eugenio Lorenzo, Technical Consultant for the National Directorate for the Environment, Ministry of Housing, Land Use Planning and Environmental Affairs, Mr. Cyro Croce, Technical Consultant for the National Directorate for the Environment, Ministry of Housing, Land Use Planning and Environmental Affairs, Ms Raquel Piaggio, State Agency for Sanitary Works (OSE), Technical Consultant for the National Directorate for the Environment, Ministry of Housing, Land Use Planning and Environmental Affairs, Mr. Charles A. Menzie, Ph.D., Principal Scientist and Director of the EcoSciences Practice at Exponent, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia, Mr. Neil McCubbin, Eng., B.Sc. (Eng.), 1st Class Honours, Glasgow, Associate of the Royal College of Science and Technology, Glasgow, as Scientific Advisers and Experts, THE COURT, composed as above, after deliberation, delivers the following Judgment: 1. On 4 May 2006, the Argentine Republic (hereinafter “Argentina”) filed in the Registry of the Court an Application instituting proceedings against the Eastern Republic of Uruguay (hereinafter “Uruguay”) in respect of a dispute concerning the breach, allegedly committed by Uruguay, of obligations under the Statute of the River Uruguay (United Nations, Treaty Series (UNTS), Vol. 1295, No. I-21425, p. 340), a treaty signed by Argentina and Uruguay at Salto (Uruguay) on 26 February 1975 and having entered into force on 18 September 1976 (hereinafter the “1975 Statute”); in the Application, Argentina stated that this breach arose out of “the authorization, construction and future commissioning of two pulp mills on the River Uruguay”, with reference in particular to “the effects of such activities on the quality of the waters of the River Uruguay and on the areas affected by the river”. In its Application, Argentina, referring to Article 36, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court, seeks to found the jurisdiction of the Court on Article 60, paragraph 1, of the 1975 Statute. - 10 - 2. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court, the Registrar communicated the Application forthwith to the Government of Uruguay. In accordance with paragraph 3 of that Article, the Secretary-General of the United Nations was notified of the filing of the Application. 3. On 4 May 2006, immediately after the filing of the Application, Argentina also submitted a request for the indication of provisional measures based on Article 41 of the Statute and Article 73 of the Rules of Court. In accordance with Article 73, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the Registrar transmitted a certified copy of this request forthwith to the Government of Uruguay. 4. On 2 June 2006, Uruguay transmitted to the Court a CD-ROM containing the electronic version of two volumes of documents relating to the Argentine request for the indication of provisional measures, entitled “Observations of Uruguay” (of which paper copies were subsequently received); a copy of these documents was immediately sent to Argentina. 5. On 2 June 2006, Argentina transmitted to the Court various documents, including a video recording, and, on 6 June 2006, it transmitted further documents; copies of each series of documents were immediately sent to Uruguay. 6. On 6 and 7 June 2006, various communications were received from the Parties, whereby each Party presented the Court with certain observations on the documents submitted by the other Party. Uruguay objected to the production of the video recording submitted by Argentina. The Court decided not to authorize the production of that recording at the hearings. 7. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of the Parties, each of them exercised its right under Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute to choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the case. Argentina chose Mr. Raúl Emilio Vinuesa, and Uruguay chose Mr. Santiago Torres Bernárdez. 8. By an Order of 13 July 2006, the Court, having heard the Parties, found “that the circumstances, as they [then] present[ed] themselves to [it], [we]re not such as to require the exercise of its power under Article 41 of the Statute to indicate provisional measures”. 9. By another Order of the same date, the Court, taking account of the views of the Parties, fixed 15 January 2007 and 20 July 2007, respectively, as the time-limits for the filing of a Memorial by Argentina and a Counter-Memorial by Uruguay; those pleadings were duly filed within the time-limits so prescribed. 10. On 29 November 2006, Uruguay, invoking Article 41 of the Statute and Article 73 of the Rules of Court, in turn submitted a request for the indication of provisional measures. In accordance with Article 73, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the Registrar transmitted a certified copy of this request forthwith to the Argentine Government. - 11 - 11. On 14 December 2006, Uruguay transmitted to the Court a volume of documents concerning the request for the indication of provisional measures, entitled “Observations of Uruguay”; a copy of these documents was immediately sent to Argentina. 12. On 18 December 2006, before the opening of the oral proceedings, Argentina transmitted to the Court a volume of documents concerning Uruguay’s request for the indication of provisional measures; the Registrar immediately sent a copy of these documents to the Government of Uruguay. 13. By an Order of 23 January 2007, the Court, having heard the Parties, found “that the circumstances, as they [then] present[ed] themselves to [it], [we]re not such as to require the exercise of its power under Article 41 of the Statute to indicate provisional measures”. 14. By an Order of 14 September 2007, the Court, taking account of the agreement of the Parties and of the circumstances of the case, authorized the submission of a Reply by Argentina and a Rejoinder by Uruguay, and fixed 29 January 2008 and 29 July 2008 as the respective time-limits for the filing of those pleadings. The Reply of Argentina and the Rejoinder of Uruguay were duly filed within the time-limits so prescribed. 15. By letters dated 16 June 2009 and 17 June 2009 respectively, the Governments of Uruguay and Argentina notified the Court that they had come to an agreement for the purpose of producing new documents pursuant to Article 56 of the Rules of Court. By letters of 23 June 2009, the Registrar informed the Parties that the Court had decided to authorize them to proceed as they had agreed. The new documents were duly filed within the agreed time-limit. 16. On 15 July 2009, each of the Parties, as provided for in the agreement between them and with the authorization of the Court, submitted comments on the new documents produced by the other Party. Each Party also filed documents in support of these comments. 17. In accordance with Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the Court decided, after ascertaining the views of the Parties, that copies of the pleadings and documents annexed would be made available to the public as from the opening of the oral proceedings. 18. By letter of 15 September 2009, Uruguay, referring to Article 56, paragraph 4, of the Rules of Court and to Practice Direction IXbis, communicated documents to the Court, forming part of publications readily available, on which it intended to rely during the oral proceedings. Argentina made no objection with regard to these documents. 19. By letter of 25 September 2009, the Argentine Government, referring to Article 56 of the Rules of Court and to Practice Direction IX, paragraph 2, sent new documents to the Registry which it wished to produce. By letter of 28 September 2009, the Government of Uruguay informed the Court that it was opposed to the production of these documents. It further indicated that if, - 12 - nevertheless, the Court decided to admit the documents in question into the record of the case, it would present comments on them and submit documents in support of those comments. By letters dated 28 September 2009, the Registrar informed the Parties that the Court did not consider the production of the new documents submitted by the Argentine Government to be necessary within the meaning of Article 56, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, and that it had not moreover identified any exceptional circumstance (Practice Direction IX, paragraph 3) which justified their production at that stage of the proceedings. 20. Public hearings were held between 14 September 2009 and 2 October 2009, at which the Court heard the oral arguments and replies of: For Argentina: H.E. Ms Susana Ruiz Cerutti, Mr. Alain Pellet, Mr. Philippe Sands, Mr. Howard Wheater, Ms Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, Mr. Marcelo Kohen, Mr. Alan Béraud, Mr. Juan Carlos Colombo, Mr. Daniel Müller. For Uruguay: H.E. Mr. Carlos Gianelli, Mr. Alan Boyle, Mr. Paul S. Reichler, Mr. Neil McCubbin, Mr. Stephen C. McCaffrey, Mr. Lawrence H. Martin, Mr. Luigi Condorelli. 21. At the hearings, Members of the Court put questions to the Parties, to which replies were given orally and in writing, in accordance with Article 61, paragraph 4, of the Rules of Court. Pursuant to Article 72 of the Rules of Court, one of the Parties submitted written comments on a written reply provided by the other and received after the closure of the oral proceedings. * 22. In its Application, the following claims were made by Argentina: “On the basis of the foregoing statement of facts and law, Argentina, while reserving the right to supplement, amend or modify the present Application in the course of the subsequent procedure, requests the Court to adjudge and declare: 1. that Uruguay has breached the obligations incumbent upon it under the 1975 Statute and the other rules of international law to which that instrument refers, including but not limited to: - 13 - (a) the obligation to take all necessary measures for the optimum and rational utilization of the River Uruguay; (b) the obligation of prior notification to CARU and to Argentina; © the obligation to comply with the procedures prescribed in Chapter II of the 1975 Statute; (d) the obligation to take all necessary measures to preserve the aquatic environment and prevent pollution and the obligation to protect biodiversity and fisheries, including the obligation to prepare a full and objective environmental impact study; (e) the obligation to co-operate in the prevention of pollution and the protection of biodiversity and of fisheries; and 2. that, by its conduct, Uruguay has engaged its international responsibility to Argentina; 3. that Uruguay shall cease its wrongful conduct and comply scrupulously in future with the obligations incumbent upon it; and 4. that Uruguay shall make full reparation for the injury caused by its breach of the obligations incumbent upon it. Argentina reserves the right to amplify or amend these requests at a subsequent stage of the proceedings.” 23. In the written proceedings, the following submissions were presented by the Parties: On behalf of the Government of Argentina, in the Memorial: “For all the reasons described in this Memorial, the Argentine Republic requests the International Court of Justice: 1. to find that by unilaterally authorizing the construction of the CMB and Orion pulp mills and the facilities associated with the latter on the left bank of the River Uruguay, in breach of the obligations resulting from the Statute of 26 February 1975, the Eastern Republic of Uruguay has committed the internationally wrongful acts set out in Chapters IV and V of this Memorial, which entail its international responsibility; 2. to adjudge and declare that, as a result, the Eastern Republic of Uruguay must: (i) cease immediately the internationally wrongful acts referred to above; (ii) resume strict compliance with its obligations under the Statute of the River Uruguay of 1975; - 14 - (iii) re-establish on the ground and in legal terms the situation that existed before the internationally wrongful acts referred to above were committed; (iv) pay compensation to the Argentine Republic for the damage caused by these internationally wrongful acts that would not be remedied by that situation being restored, of an amount to be determined by the Court at a subsequent stage of these proceedings; (v) provide adequate guarantees that it will refrain in future from preventing the Statute of the River Uruguay of 1975 from being applied, in particular the consultation procedure established by Chapter II of that Treaty. The Argentine Republic reserves the right to supplement or amend these submissions should the need arise, in the light of the development of the situation. This would in particular apply if Uruguay were to aggravate the dispute1, for example if the Orion mill were to be commissioned before the end of these proceedings.” ___________ 1See the Order of the Court of 13 July 2006 on Argentina’s request for the indication of provisional measures, para. 82. in the Reply: “For all the reasons described in its Memorial, which it fully stands by, and in the present Reply, the Argentine Republic requests the International Court of Justice: 1. to find that by authorizing ⎯ the construction of the CMB mill; ⎯ the construction and commissioning of the Orion mill and its associated facilities on the left bank of the River Uruguay, the Eastern Republic of Uruguay has violated the obligations incumbent on it under the Statute of the River Uruguay of 26 February 1975 and has engaged its international responsibility; 2. to adjudge and declare that, as a result, the Eastern Republic of Uruguay must: (i) resume strict compliance with its obligations under the Statute of the River Uruguay of 1975; (ii) cease immediately the internationally wrongful acts by which it has engaged its responsibility; (iii) re-establish on the ground and in legal terms the situation that existed before these internationally wrongful acts were committed; (iv) pay compensation to the Argentine Republic for the damage caused by these internationally wrongful acts that would not be remedied by that situation being restored, of an amount to be determined by the Court at a subsequent stage of these proceedings; - 15 - (v) provide adequate guarantees that it will refrain in future from preventing the Statute of the River Uruguay of 1975 from being applied, in particular the consultation procedure established by Chapter II of that Treaty. The Argentine Republic reserves the right to supplement or amend these submissions should the need arise, in the light of subsequent developments in the case.” On behalf of the Government of Uruguay, in the Counter-Memorial: “On the basis of the facts and arguments set out above, and reserving its right to supplement or amend these Submissions, Uruguay requests that the Court adjudge and declare that the claims of Argentina are rejected.” In the Rejoinder: “Based on all the above, it can be concluded that: (a) Argentina has not demonstrated any harm, or risk of harm, to the river or its ecosystem resulting from Uruguay’s alleged violations of its substantive obligations under the 1975 Statute that would be sufficient to warrant the dismantling of the Botnia plant; (b) the harm to the Uruguayan economy in terms of lost jobs and revenue would be substantial; © in light of points (a) and (b), the remedy of tearing the plant down would therefore be disproportionately onerous, and should not be granted; (d) if the Court finds, notwithstanding all the evidence to the contrary, that Uruguay has violated its procedural obligations to Argentina, it can issue a declaratory judgment to that effect, which would constitute an adequate form of satisfaction; (e) if the Court finds, notwithstanding all the evidence to the contrary, that the plant is not in complete compliance with Uruguay’s obligation to protect the river or its aquatic environment, the Court can order Uruguay to take whatever additional protective measures are necessary to ensure that the plant conforms to the Statute’s substantive requirements; (f) if the Court finds, notwithstanding all the evidence to the contrary, that Uruguay has actually caused damage to the river or to Argentina, it can order Uruguay to pay Argentina monetary compensation under Articles 42 and 43 of the Statute; and (g) the Court should issue a declaration making clear the Parties are obligated to ensure full respect for all the rights in dispute in this case, including Uruguay’s right to continue operating the Botnia plant in conformity with the provisions of the 1975 Statute. - 16 - Submissions On the basis of the facts and arguments set out above, and reserving its right to supplement or amend these Submissions, Uruguay requests that the Court adjudge and declare that the claims of Argentina are rejected, and Uruguay’s right to continue operating the Botnia plant in conformity with the provisions of the 1975 Statute is affirmed.” 24. At the oral proceedings, the following final submissions were presented by the Parties: On behalf of the Government of Argentina, at the hearing of 29 September 2009: “For all the reasons described in its Memorial, in its Reply and in the oral proceedings, which it fully stands by, the Argentine Republic requests the International Court of Justice: 1. to find that by authorizing ⎯ the construction of the ENCE mill; ⎯ the construction and commissioning of the Botnia mill and its associated facilities on the left bank of the River Uruguay, the Eastern Republic of Uruguay has violated the obligations incumbent on it under the Statute of the River Uruguay of 26 February 1975 and has engaged its international responsibility; 2. to adjudge and declare that, as a result, the Eastern Republic of Uruguay must: (i) resume strict compliance with its obligations under the Statute of the River Uruguay of 1975; (ii) cease immediately the internationally wrongful acts by which it has engaged its responsibility; (iii) re-establish on the ground and in legal terms the situation that existed before these internationally wrongful acts were committed; (iv) pay compensation to the Argentine Republic for the damage caused by these internationally wrongful acts that would not be remedied by that situation being restored, of an amount to be determined by the Court at a subsequent stage of these proceedings; (v) provide adequate guarantees that it will refrain in future from preventing the Statute of the River Uruguay of 1975 from being applied, in particular the consultation procedure established by Chapter II of that Treaty.” - 17 - On behalf of the Government of Uruguay, at the hearing of 2 October 2009: “On the basis of the facts and arguments set out in Uruguay’s Counter-Memorial, Rejoinder and during the oral proceedings, Uruguay requests that the Court adjudge and declare that the claims of Argentina are rejected, and Uruguay’s right to continue operating the Botnia plant in conformity with the provisions of the 1975 Statute is affirmed.” * * * I. LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND FACTS OF THE CASE 25. The dispute before the Court has arisen in connection with the planned construction authorized by Uruguay of one pulp mill and the construction and commissioning of another, also authorized by Uruguay, on the River Uruguay (see sketch-map No. 1 for the general geographical context). After identifying the legal instruments concerning the River Uruguay by which the Parties are bound, the Court will set out the main facts of the case. A. Legal framework 26. The boundary between Argentina and Uruguay in the River Uruguay is defined by the bilateral Treaty entered into for that purpose at Montevideo on 7 April 1961 (UNTS, Vol. 635, No. 9074, p. 98). Articles 1 to 4 of the Treaty delimit the boundary between the Contracting States in the river and attribute certain islands and islets in it to them. Articles 5 and 6 concern the régime for navigation on the river. Article 7 provides for the establishment by the parties of a “régime for the use of the river” covering various subjects, including the conservation of living resources and the prevention of water pollution of the river. Articles 8 to 10 lay down certain obligations concerning the islands and islets and their inhabitants. 27. The “régime for the use of the river” contemplated in Article 7 of the 1961 Treaty was established through the 1975 Statute (see paragraph 1 above). Article 1 of the 1975 Statute states that the parties adopted it “in order to establish the joint machinery necessary for the optimum and rational utilization of the River Uruguay, in strict observance of the rights and obligations arising from treaties and other international agreements in force for each of the parties”. After having thus defined its purpose (Article 1) and having also made clear the meaning of certain terms used therein (Article 2), the 1975 Statute lays down rules governing navigation and works on the river (Chapter II, Articles 3 to 13), pilotage (Chapter III, Articles 14 to 16), port facilities, unloading and additional loading (Chapter IV, Articles 17 to 18), the safeguarding of human life (Chapter V, Articles 19 to 23) and the salvaging of property (Chapter VI, Articles 24 to 26), use of the waters of the river (Chapter VII, Articles 27 to 29), resources of the bed and subsoil (Chapter VIII, Articles 30 to 34), the conservation, utilization and development of other natural resources ARGENTINA URUGUAY Sketch-map No. 1: Río de la Plata BUENOS AIRES General geographical context Mercator Projection (33° 30' S) WGS 84 This sketch-map has been prepared for illustrative purposes only . River Uruguay RiverGualeguaychú MONTEVIDEO (location of Orion (Botnia) mill) Fray Bentos Gualeguaychú Nueva Palmira - 19 - (Chapter IX, Articles 35 to 39), pollution (Chapter X, Articles 40 to 43), scientific research (Chapter XI, Articles 44 to 45), and various powers of the parties over the river and vessels sailing on it (Chapter XII, Articles 46 to 48). The 1975 Statute sets up the Administrative Commission of the River Uruguay (hereinafter “CARU”, from the Spanish acronym for “Comisión Administradora del Río Uruguay”) (Chapter XIII, Articles 49 to 57), and then establishes procedures for conciliation (Chap. XIV, Articles 58 to 59) and judicial settlement of disputes (Chapter XV, Article 60). Lastly, the 1975 Statute contains transitional (Chapter XVI, Articles 61 to 62) and final (Chapter XVII, Article 63) provisions. B. CMB (ENCE) Project 28. The first pulp mill at the root of the dispute was planned by “Celulosas de M’Bopicuá S.A.” (hereinafter “CMB”), a company formed by the Spanish company ENCE (from the Spanish acronym for “Empresa Nacional de Celulosas de España”, hereinafter “ENCE”). This mill, hereinafter referred to as the “CMB (ENCE)” mill, was to have been built on the left bank of the River Uruguay in the Uruguayan department of Río Negro opposite the Argentine region of Gualeguaychú, more specifically to the east of the city of Fray Bentos, near the “General San Martín” international bridge (see sketch-map No. 2). 29. On 22 July 2002, the promoters of this industrial project approached the Uruguayan authorities and submitted an environmental impact assessment (“EIA” according to the abbreviation used by the Parties) of the plan to Uruguay’s National Directorate for the Environment (hereinafter “DINAMA”, from the Spanish acronym for “Dirección Nacional de Medio Ambiente”). During the same period, representatives of CMB, which had been specially formed to build the CMB (ENCE) mill, informed the President of CARU of the project. The President of CARU wrote to the Uruguayan Minister of the Environment on 17 October 2002 seeking a copy of the environmental impact assessment of the CMB (ENCE) project submitted by the promoters of this industrial project. This request was reiterated on 21 April 2003. On 14 May 2003, Uruguay submitted to CARU a document entitled “Environmental Impact Study, Celulosas de M’Bopicuá. Summary for public release”. One month later, the CARU Subcommittee on Water Quality and Pollution Control took notice of the document transmitted by Uruguay and suggested that a copy thereof be sent to its technical advisers for their opinions. Copies were also provided to the Parties’ delegations. 30. A public hearing, attended by CARU’s Legal Adviser and its technical secretary, was held on 21 July 2003 in the city of Fray Bentos concerning CMB’s application for an environmental authorization. On 15 August 2003, CARU asked Uruguay for further information on various points concerning the planned CMB (ENCE) mill. This request was reiterated on 12 September 2003. On 2 October 2003, DINAMA submitted its assessment report to the Uruguayan Ministry of Housing, Land Use Planning and Environmental Affairs (hereinafter “MVOTMA”, from the Spanish abbreviation for “Ministerio de Vivienda Ordenamiento Territorial y Medio Ambiente”), recommending that CMB be granted an initial environmental authorization (“AAP” according to the Spanish abbreviation for “autorización ambiental previa”) subject to certain conditions. On 8 October 2003, CARU was informed by the Uruguayan delegation that DINAMA would very shortly send CARU a report on the CMB (ENCE) project. the planned CMB (ENCE) mill (not built) CMB (ENCE) mill (planned but not built) River Gualeguaychú ARGENTINA Inés Lagoon Gualeguaychú General San URUGUAY for illustrative purposes only . This sketch-map has been prepared WGS84 (33° S) Mercator Projection River Uruguay Sketch-map No. 2: Siting of the Orion (Botnia) mill and Martín bridge Ñandubaysal Bay Orion (Botnia) mill Fray Bentos - 21 - 31. On 9 October 2003, MVOTMA issued an initial environmental authorization to CMB for the construction of the CMB (ENCE) mill. On the same date the Presidents of Argentina and Uruguay met at Anchorena (Colonia, Uruguay). Argentina maintains that the President of Uruguay, Jorge Battle, then promised his Argentine counterpart, Néstor Kirchner, that no authorization would be issued before Argentina’s environmental concerns had been addressed. Uruguay challenges this version of the facts and contends that the Parties agreed at that meeting to deal with the CMB (ENCE) project otherwise than through the procedure under Articles 7 to 12 of the 1975 Statute and that Argentina let it be known that it was not opposed to the project per se. Argentina disputes these assertions. 32. The day after the meeting between the Heads of State of Argentina and Uruguay, CARU declared its willingness to resume the technical analyses of the CMB (ENCE) project as soon as Uruguay transmitted the awaited documents. On 17 October 2003, CARU held an extraordinary plenary meeting at the request of Argentina, at which Argentina complained of Uruguay’s granting on 9 October 2003 of the initial environmental authorization. Following the extraordinary meeting CARU suspended work for more than six months, as the Parties could not agree on how to implement the consultation mechanism established by the 1975 Statute. 33. On 27 October 2003, Uruguay transmitted to Argentina copies of the environmental impact assessment submitted by ENCE on 22 July 2002, of DINAMA’s final assessment report dated 2 October 2003 and of the initial environmental authorization of 9 October 2003. Argentina reacted by expressing its view that Article 7 of the 1975 Statute had not been observed and that the transmitted documents did not appear adequate to allow for a technical opinion to be expressed on the environmental impact of the project. On 7 November 2003, further to a request from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Argentina, Uruguay provided Argentina with a copy of the Uruguayan Ministry of the Environment’s entire file on the CMB (ENCE) project. On 23 February 2004, Argentina forwarded all of this documentation received from Uruguay to CARU. 34. On 2 March 2004, the Parties’ Ministers for Foreign Affairs met in Buenos Aires. On 15 May 2004, CARU resumed its work at an extraordinary plenary meeting during which it took note of the ministerial “understanding” which was reached on 2 March 2004. The Parties are at odds over the content of this “understanding”. The Court will return to this when it considers Argentina’s claims as to Uruguay’s breach of its procedural obligations under the 1975 Statute (see paragraphs 67 to 158). 35. Following up on CARU’s extraordinary meeting of 15 May 2004, the CARU Subcommittee on Water Quality and Pollution Control prepared a plan for monitoring water quality in the area of the pulp mills (hereinafter the “PROCEL” plan from the Spanish acronym for “Plan de Monitoreo de la Calidad Ambiental en el Río Uruguay en Áreas de Plantas Celulósicas”). CARU approved the plan on 12 November 2004. - 22 - 36. On 28 November 2005, Uruguay authorized preparatory work to begin for the construction of the CMB (ENCE) mill (ground clearing). On 28 March 2006, the project’s promoters decided to halt the work for 90 days. On 21 September 2006, they announced their intention not to build the mill at the planned site on the bank of the River Uruguay. C. Orion (Botnia) mill 37. The second industrial project at the root of the dispute before the Court was undertaken by “Botnia S.A.” and “Botnia Fray Bentos S.A.” (hereinafter “Botnia”), companies formed under Uruguayan law in 2003 specially for the purpose by Oy Metsä-Botnia AB, a Finnish company. This second pulp mill, called “Orion” (hereinafter the “Orion (Botnia)” mill), has been built on the left bank of the River Uruguay, a few kilometres downstream of the site planned for the CMB (ENCE) mill, and also near the city of Fray Bentos (see sketch-map No. 2). It has been operational and functioning since 9 November 2007. 38. After informing the Uruguayan authorities of this industrial project in late 2003, the project promoters submitted an application to them for an initial environmental authorization on 31 March 2004 and supplemented it on 7 April 2004. Several weeks later, on 29 and 30 April 2004, CARU members and Botnia representatives met informally. Following that meeting, CARU’s Subcommittee on Water Quality and Pollution Control suggested on 18 June 2004 that Botnia expand on the information provided at the meeting. On 19 October 2004, CARU held another meeting with Botnia representatives and again expressed the need for further information on Botnia’s application to DINAMA for an initial environmental authorization. On 12 November 2004, when approving the water quality monitoring plan put forward by the CARU Subcommittee on Water Quality and Pollution Control (see paragraph 35 above), CARU decided, on the proposal of that subcommittee, to ask Uruguay to provide further information on the application for an initial environmental authorization. CARU transmitted this request for further information to Uruguay by note dated 16 November 2004. 39. On 21 December 2004 DINAMA held a public hearing, attended by a CARU adviser, on the Orion (Botnia) project in Fray Bentos. DINAMA adopted its environmental impact study of the planned Orion (Botnia) mill on 11 February 2005 and recommended that the initial environmental authorization be granted, subject to certain conditions. MVOTMA issued the initial authorization to Botnia on 14 February 2005 for the construction of the Orion (Botnia) mill and an adjacent port terminal. At a CARU meeting on 11 March 2005, Argentina questioned whether the granting of the initial environmental authorization was well-founded in view of the procedural obligations laid down in the 1975 Statute. Argentina reiterated this position at the CARU meeting on 6 May 2005. On 12 April 2005, Uruguay had in the meantime authorized the clearance of the future mill site and the associated groundworks. - 23 - 40. On 31 May 2005, in pursuance of an agreement made on 5 May 2005 by the Presidents of the two Parties, their Ministers for Foreign Affairs created a High-Level Technical Group (hereinafter the “GTAN”, from the Spanish abbreviation for “Grupo Técnico de Alto Nivel”), which was given responsibility for resolving the disputes over the CMB (ENCE) and Orion (Botnia) mills within 180 days. The GTAN held 12 meetings between 3 August 2005 and 30 January 2006, with the Parties exchanging various documents in the context of this bilateral process. On 31 January 2006, Uruguay determined that the negotiations undertaken within the GTAN had failed; Argentina did likewise on 3 February 2006. The Court will return later to the significance of this process agreed on by the Parties (see paragraphs 132 to 149). 41. On 26 June 2005, Argentina wrote to the President of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development to express its concern at the possibility of the International Finance Corporation (hereinafter the “IFC”) contributing to the financing of the planned pulp mills. The IFC nevertheless decided to provide financial support for the Orion (Botnia) mill, but did commission EcoMetrix, a consultancy specializing in environmental and industrial matters, to prepare various technical reports on the planned mill and an environmental impact assessment of it. EcoMetrix was also engaged by the IFC to carry out environmental monitoring on the IFC’s behalf of the plant once it had been placed in service. 42. On 5 July 2005, Uruguay authorized Botnia to build a port adjacent to the Orion (Botnia) mill. This authorization was transmitted to CARU on 15 August 2005. On 22 August 2005, Uruguay authorized the construction of a chimney and concrete foundations for the Orion (Botnia) mill. Further authorizations were granted as the construction of this mill proceeded, for example in respect of the waste treatment installations. On 13 October 2005, Uruguay transmitted additional documentation to CARU concerning the port terminal adjacent to the Orion (Botnia) mill. Argentina repeatedly asked, including at CARU meetings, that the initial work connected with the Orion (Botnia) mill and the CMB (ENCE) mill should be suspended. At a meeting between the Heads of State of the Parties at Santiago de Chile on 11 March 2006, Uruguay’s President asked ENCE and Botnia to suspend construction of the mills. ENCE suspended work for 90 days (see paragraph 36 above), Botnia for ten. 43. Argentina referred the present dispute to the Court by Application dated 4 May 2006. On 24 August 2006, Uruguay authorized the commissioning of the port terminal adjacent to the Orion (Botnia) mill and gave CARU notice of this on 4 September 2006. On 12 September 2006, Uruguay authorized Botnia to extract and use water from the river for industrial purposes and formally notified CARU of its authorization on 17 October 2006. At the summit of Heads of State and Government of the Ibero-American countries held in Montevideo in November 2006, the King of Spain was asked to endeavour to reconcile the positions of the Parties; a negotiated resolution of the dispute did not however result. On 8 November 2007, Uruguay authorized the commissioning of the Orion (Botnia) mill and it began operating the next day. In December 2009, Oy Metsä-Botnia AB transferred its interest in the Orion (Botnia) mill to UPM, another Finnish company. * - 24 - 44. In addition, Uruguay authorized Ontur International S.A. to build and operate a port terminal at Nueva Palmira. The terminal was inaugurated in August 2007 and, on 16 November 2007, Uruguay transmitted to CARU a copy of the authorization for its commissioning. 45. In their written pleadings the Parties have debated whether, in light of the procedural obligations laid down in the 1975 Statute, the authorizations for the port terminal were properly issued by Uruguay. The Court deems it unnecessary to review the detailed facts leading up to the construction of the Nueva Palmira terminal, being of the view that these port facilities do not fall within the scope of the subject of the dispute before it. Indeed, nowhere in the claims asserted in its Application or in the submissions in its Memorial or Reply (see paragraphs 22 and 23 above) did Argentina explicitly refer to the port terminal at Nueva Palmira. In its final submissions presented at the hearing on 29 September 2009, Argentina again limited the subject-matter of its claims to the authorization of the construction of the CMB (ENCE) mill and the authorization of the construction and commissioning of “the Botnia mill and its associated facilities on the left bank of the River Uruguay”. The Court does not consider the port terminal at Nueva Palmira, which lies some 100 km south of Fray Bentos, downstream of the Orion (Botnia) mill (see sketch-map No. 1), and is used by other economic operators as well, to be a facility “associated” with the mill. 46. The dispute submitted to the Court concerns the interpretation and application of the 1975 Statute, namely, on the one hand whether Uruguay complied with its procedural obligations under the 1975 Statute in issuing authorizations for the construction of the CMB (ENCE) mill as well as for the construction and the commissioning of the Orion (Botnia) mill and its adjacent port; and on the other hand whether Uruguay has complied with its substantive obligations under the 1975 Statute since the commissioning of the Orion (Botnia) mill in November 2007. * * 47. Having thus related the circumstances surrounding the dispute between the Parties, the Court will consider the basis and scope of its jurisdiction, including questions relating to the law applicable to the present dispute (see paragraphs 48 to 66). It will then examine Argentina’s allegations of breaches by Uruguay of procedural obligations (see paragraphs 67 to 158) and substantive obligations (see paragraphs 159 to 266) laid down in the 1975 Statute. Lastly, the Court will respond to the claims presented by the Parties in their final submissions (see paragraphs 267 to 280). * * - 25 - II. SCOPE OF THE COURT’S JURISDICTION 48. The Parties are in agreement that the Court’s jurisdiction is based on Article 36, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court and Article 60, paragraph 1, of the 1975 Statute. The latter reads: “Any dispute concerning the interpretation or application of the Treaty1 and the Statute which cannot be settled by direct negotiations may be submitted by either party to the International Court of Justice.” The Parties differ as to whether all the claims advanced by Argentina fall within the ambit of the compromissory clause. 49. Uruguay acknowledges that the Court’s jurisdiction under the compromissory clause extends to claims concerning any pollution or type of harm caused to the River Uruguay, or to organisms living there, in violation of the 1975 Statute. Uruguay also acknowledges that claims concerning the alleged impact of the operation of the pulp mill on the quality of the waters of the river fall within the compromissory clause. On the other hand, Uruguay takes the position that Argentina cannot rely on the compromissory clause to submit claims regarding every type of environmental damage. Uruguay further argues that Argentina’s contentions concerning air pollution, noise, visual and general nuisance, as well as the specific impact on the tourism sector, allegedly caused by the Orion (Botnia) mill, do not concern the interpretation or the application of the 1975 Statute, and the Court therefore lacks jurisdiction over them. Uruguay nevertheless does concede that air pollution which has harmful effects on the quality of the waters of the river or on the aquatic environment would fall within the jurisdiction of the Court. 50. Argentina maintains that Uruguay’s position on the scope of the Court’s jurisdiction is too narrow. It contends that the 1975 Statute was entered into with a view to protect not only the quality of the waters of the river but more generally its “régime” and the areas affected by it. Relying on Article 36 of the 1975 Statute, which lays out the obligation of the parties to co-ordinate measures to avoid any change in the ecological balance and to control harmful factors in the river and the areas affected by it, Argentina asserts that the Court has jurisdiction also with respect to claims concerning air pollution and even noise and “visual” pollution. Moreover, Argentina contends that bad odours caused by the Orion (Botnia) mill negatively affect the use of the river for recreational purposes, particularly in the Gualeguaychú resort on its bank of the river. This claim, according to Argentina, also falls within the Court’s jurisdiction. 51. The Court, when addressing various allegations or claims advanced by Argentina, will have to determine whether they concern “the interpretation or application” of the 1975 Statute, as its jurisdiction under Article 60 thereof covers “[a]ny dispute concerning the interpretation or application of the [1961] Treaty and the [1975] Statute”. Argentina has made no claim to the effect that Uruguay violated obligations under the 1961 Treaty. 1The Montevideo Treaty of 7 April 1961, concerning the boundary constituted by the River Uruguay (UNTS, Vol. 635, No. 9074, p. 98; footnote added). - 26 - 52. In order to determine whether Uruguay has breached its obligations under the 1975 Statute, as alleged by Argentina, the Court will have to interpret its provisions and to determine their scope ratione materiae. Only those claims advanced by Argentina which are based on the provisions of the 1975 Statute fall within the Court’s jurisdiction ratione materiae under the compromissory clause contained in Article 60. Although Argentina, when making claims concerning noise and “visual” pollution allegedly caused by the pulp mill, invokes the provision of Article 36 of the 1975 Statute, the Court sees no basis in it for such claims. The plain language of Article 36, which provides that “[t]he parties shall co-ordinate, through the Commission, the necessary measures to avoid any change in the ecological balance and to control pests and other harmful factors in the river and the areas affected by it”, leaves no doubt that it does not address the alleged noise and visual pollution as claimed by Argentina. Nor does the Court see any other basis in the 1975 Statute for such claims; therefore, the claims relating to noise and visual pollution are manifestly outside the jurisdiction of the Court conferred upon it under Article 60. Similarly, no provision of the 1975 Statute addresses the issue of “bad odours” complained of by Argentina. Consequently, for the same reason, the claim regarding the impact of bad odours on tourism in Argentina also falls outside the Court’s jurisdiction. Even if bad odours were to be subsumed under the issue of air pollution, which will be addressed in paragraphs 263 and 264 below, the Court notes that Argentina has submitted no evidence as to any relationship between the alleged bad odours and the aquatic environment of the river. 53. Characterizing the provisions of Articles 1 and 41 of the 1975 Statute as “referral clauses”, Argentina ascribes to them the effect of incorporating into the Statute the obligations of the Parties under general international law and a number of multilateral conventions pertaining to the protection of the environment. Consequently, in the view of Argentina, the Court has jurisdiction to determine whether Uruguay has complied with its obligations under certain international conventions. 54. The Court now therefore turns its attention to the issue whether its jurisdiction under Article 60 of the 1975 Statute also encompasses obligations of the Parties under international agreements and general international law invoked by Argentina and to the role of such agreements and general international law in the context of the present case. 55. Argentina asserts that the 1975 Statute constitutes the law applicable to the dispute before the Court, as supplemented so far as its application and interpretation are concerned, by various customary principles and treaties in force between the Parties and referred to in the Statute. Relying on the rule of treaty interpretation set out in Article 31, paragraph 3 © of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Argentina contends notably that the 1975 Statute must be interpreted in the light of principles governing the law of international watercourses and principles of international law ensuring protection of the environment. It asserts that the 1975 Statute must be interpreted so as to take account of all “relevant rules” of international law applicable in the relations between the Parties, so that the Statute’s interpretation remains current and evolves in accordance with changes in environmental standards. In this connection Argentina refers to the - 27 - principles of equitable, reasonable and non-injurious use of international watercourses, the principles of sustainable development, prevention, precaution and the need to carry out an environmental impact assessment. It contends that these rules and principles are applicable in giving the 1975 Statute a dynamic interpretation, although they neither replace it nor restrict its scope. 56. Argentina further considers that the Court must require compliance with the Parties’ treaty obligations referred to in Articles 1 and 41 (a) of the 1975 Statute. Argentina maintains that the “referral clauses” contained in these articles make it possible to incorporate and apply obligations arising from other treaties and international agreements binding on the Parties. To this end, Argentina refers to the 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (hereinafter the “CITES Convention”), the 1971 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (hereinafter the “Ramsar Convention”), the 1992 United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (hereinafter the “Biodiversity Convention”), and the 2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (hereinafter the “POPs Convention”). It asserts that these conventional obligations are in addition to the obligations arising under the 1975 Statute, and observance of them should be ensured when application of the Statute is being considered. Argentina maintains that it is only where “more specific rules of the [1975] Statute (lex specialis)” derogate from them that the instruments to which the Statute refers should not be applied. 57. Uruguay likewise considers that the 1975 Statute must be interpreted in the light of general international law and it observes that the Parties concur on this point. It maintains however that its interpretation of the 1975 Statute accords with the various general principles of the law of international watercourses and of international environmental law, even if its understanding of these principles does not entirely correspond to that of Argentina. Uruguay considers that whether Articles 1 and 41 (a) of the 1975 Statute can be read as a referral to other treaties in force between the Parties has no bearing in the present case, because conventions relied on by Argentina are either irrelevant, or Uruguay cannot be found to have violated any other conventional obligations. In any event, the Court would lack jurisdiction to rule on alleged breaches of international obligations which are not contained in the 1975 Statute. 58. The Court will first address the issue whether Articles 1 and 41 (a) can be read as incorporating into the 1975 Statute the obligations of the Parties under the various multilateral conventions relied upon by Argentina. 59. Article 1 of the 1975 Statute reads as follows: “The parties agree on this Statute, in implementation of the provisions of Article 7 of the Treaty concerning the Boundary Constituted by the River Uruguay of 7 April 1961, in order to establish the joint machinery necessary for the optimum and rational utilization of the River Uruguay, in strict observance of the rights and obligations arising from treaties and other international agreements in force for each of the parties.” (UNTS, Vol. 1295, No. I-21425, p. 340; footnote omitted.) - 28 - Article 1 sets out the purpose of the 1975 Statute. The Parties concluded it in order to establish the joint machinery necessary for the rational and optimum utilization of the River Uruguay. It is true that this article contains a reference to “the rights and obligations arising from treaties and other international agreements in force for each of the parties”. This reference, however, does not suggest that the Parties sought to make compliance with their obligations under other treaties one of their duties under the 1975 Statute; rather, the reference to other treaties emphasizes that the agreement of the Parties on the Statute is reached in implementation of the provisions of Article 7 of the 1961 Treaty and “in strict observance of the rights and obligations arising from treaties and other international agreements in force for each of the parties” (emphasis added). While the conjunction “and” is missing from the English and French translations of the 1975 Statute, as published in the United Nations Treaty Series (Vol. 1295, p. 340 and p. 348), it is contained in the Spanish text of the Statute, which is the authentic text and reads as follows: “Las partes acuerdan el presente Estatuto, en cumplimiento de lo dispuesto en el Artículo 7 del Tratado de Límites en el Río Uruguay, de 7 de Abril de 1961 con el fin de establecer los mecanismos comunes necesarios para el óptimo y racional aprovechamiento del Río Uruguay, y en estricta observancia de los derechos y obligaciones emergentes de los tratados y demás compromisos internacionales vigentes para cualquiera de las partes.” (UNTS, Vol. 1295, p. 332; emphasis added.) The presence of the conjunction in the Spanish text suggests that the clause “in strict observance of the rights and obligations arising from treaties and other international agreements in force for each of the parties” is linked to and is to be read with the first part of Article 1, i.e., “[t]he parties agree on this Statute, in implementation of the provisions of Article 7 of the Treaty concerning the Boundary Constituted by the River Uruguay”. 60. There is one additional element in the language of Article 1 of the 1975 Statute which should be noted. It mentions “treaties and other international agreements in force for each of the parties” (in Spanish original “tratados y demás compromisos internacionales vigentes para cualquiera de las partes”; emphasis added). In the French translation, this part of Article 1 reads “traités et autres engagements internationaux en vigueur à l’égard de l’une ou l’autre des parties” (emphasis added). The fact that Article 1 does not require that the “treaties and other international agreements” should be in force between the two parties thus clearly indicates that the 1975 Statute takes account of the prior commitments of each of the parties which have a bearing on it. 61. Article 41 of the 1975 Statute, paragraph (a) of which Argentina considers as constituting another “referral clause” incorporating the obligations under international agreements into the Statute, reads as follows: “Without prejudice to the functions assigned to the Commission in this respect, the parties undertake: (a) to protect and preserve the aquatic environment and, in particular, to prevent its pollution, by prescribing appropriate rules and [adopting appropriate] measures in accordance with applicable international agreements and in keeping, where relevant, with the guidelines and recommendations of international technical bodies; - 29 - (b) not to reduce in their respective legal systems: 1. the technical requirements in force for preventing water pollution, and 2. the severity of the penalties established for violations; © to inform one another of any rules which they plan to prescribe with regard to water pollution in order to establish equivalent rules in their respective legal systems.” (Emphasis added.) 62. The Court observes that the words “adopting appropriate” do not appear in the English translation while they appear in the original Spanish text (“dictando las normas y adoptando las medidas apropiadas”). Basing itself on the original Spanish text, it is difficult for the Court to see how this provision could be construed as a “referral clause” having the effect of incorporating the obligations of the parties under international agreements and other norms envisaged within the ambit of the 1975 Statute. The purpose of the provision in Article 41 (a) is to protect and preserve the aquatic environment by requiring each of the parties to enact rules and to adopt appropriate measures. Article 41 (a) distinguishes between applicable international agreements and the guidelines and recommendations of international technical bodies. While the former are legally binding and therefore the domestic rules and regulations enacted and the measures adopted by the State have to comply with them, the latter, not being formally binding, are, to the extent they are relevant, to be taken into account by the State so that the domestic rules and regulations and the measures it adopts are compatible (“con adecuación”) with those guidelines and recommendations. However, Article 41 does not incorporate international agreements as such into the 1975 Statute but rather sets obligations for the parties to exercise their regulatory powers, in conformity with applicable international agreements, for the protection and preservation of the aquatic environment of the River Uruguay. Under Article 41 (b) the existing requirements for preventing water pollution and the severity of the penalties are not to be reduced. Finally, paragraph © of Article 41 concerns the obligation to inform the other party of plans to prescribe rules on water pollution. 63. The Court concludes that there is no basis in the text of Article 41 of the 1975 Statute for the contention that it constitutes a “referral clause”. Consequently, the various multilateral conventions relied on by Argentina are not, as such, incorporated in the 1975 Statute. For that reason, they do not fall within the scope of the compromissory clause and therefore the Court has no jurisdiction to rule whether Uruguay has complied with its obligations thereunder. 64. The Court next briefly turns to the issue of how the 1975 Statute is to be interpreted. The Parties concur as to the 1975 Statute’s origin and historical context, although they differ as to the nature and general tenor of the Statute and the procedural and substantive obligations therein. The Parties nevertheless are in agreement that the 1975 Statute is to be interpreted in accordance with rules of customary international law on treaty interpretation, as codified in Article 31 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. - 30 - 65. The Court has had recourse to these rules when it has had to interpret the provisions of treaties and international agreements concluded before the entry into force of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties in 1980 (see, e.g., Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1994, p. 21, para. 41; Kasikili/Sedudu Island (Botswana/Namibia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 1059, para. 18). The 1975 Statute is also a treaty which predates the entry into force of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. In interpreting the terms of the 1975 Statute, the Court will have recourse to the customary rules on treaty interpretation as reflected in Article 31 of the Vienna Convention. Accordingly the 1975 Statute is to be “interpreted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the [statute] in their context and in light of its object and purpose”. That interpretation will also take into account, together with the context, “any relevant rules of international law applicable in the relations between the parties”. 66. In the interpretation of the 1975 Statute, taking account of relevant rules of international law applicable in the relations between the Parties, whether these are rules of general international law or contained in multilateral conventions to which the two States are parties, nevertheless has no bearing on the scope of the jurisdiction conferred on the Court under Article 60 of the 1975 Statute, which remains confined to disputes concerning the interpretation or application of the Statute. * * III. THE ALLEGED BREACH OF PROCEDURAL OBLIGATIONS 67. The Application filed by Argentina on 4 May 2006 concerns the alleged breach by Uruguay of both procedural and substantive obligations laid down in the 1975 Statute. The Court will start by considering the alleged breach of procedural obligations under Articles 7 to 12 of the 1975 Statute, in relation to the (CMB) ENCE and Orion (Botnia) mill projects and the facilities associated with the latter, on the left bank of the River Uruguay near the city of Fray Bentos. 68. Argentina takes the view that the procedural obligations were intrinsically linked to the substantive obligations laid down by the 1975 Statute, and that a breach of the former entailed a breach of the latter. With regard to the procedural obligations, these are said by Argentina to constitute an integrated and indivisible whole in which CARU, as an organization, plays an essential role. Consequently, according to Argentina, Uruguay could not invoke other procedural arrangements so as to derogate from the procedural obligations laid down by the 1975 Statute, except by mutual consent. - 31 - 69. Argentina argues that, at the end of the procedural mechanism provided for by the 1975 Statute, and in the absence of agreement between the Parties, the latter have no choice but to submit the matter to the Court under the terms of Articles 12 and 60 of the Statute, with Uruguay being unable to proceed with the construction of the planned mills until the Court has delivered its Judgment. 70. Following the lines of the argument put forward by the Applicant, the Court will examine in turn the following four points: The links between the procedural obligations and the substantive obligations (A); the procedural obligations and their interrelation with each other (B); whether the Parties agreed to derogate from the procedural obligations set out in the 1975 Statute ©; and Uruguay’s obligations at the end of the negotiation period (D). A. The links between the procedural obligations and the substantive obligations 71. Argentina maintains that the procedural provisions laid down in Articles 7 to 12 of the 1975 Statute are aimed at ensuring “the optimum and rational utilization of the [r]iver” (Article 1), just as are the provisions concerning use of water, the conservation, utilization and development of other natural resources, pollution and research. The aim is also said to be to prevent the Parties from acting unilaterally and without regard for earlier or current uses of the river. According to Argentina, any disregarding of this machinery would therefore undermine the object and purpose of the 1975 Statute; indeed the “optimum and rational utilization of the [r]iver” would not be ensured, as this could only be achieved in accordance with the procedures laid down under the Statute. 72. It follows, according to Argentina, that a breach of the procedural obligations automatically entails a breach of the substantive obligations, since the two categories of obligations are indivisible. Such a position is said to be supported by the Order of the Court of 13 July 2006, according to which the 1975 Statute created “a comprehensive régime”. 73. Uruguay similarly takes the view that the procedural obligations are intended to facilitate the performance of the substantive obligations, the former being a means rather than an end. It too points out that Article 1 of the 1975 Statute defines its object and purpose. 74. However, Uruguay rejects Argentina’s argument as artificial, since it appears to mix procedural and substantive questions with the aim of creating the belief that the breach of procedural obligations necessarily entails the breach of substantive ones. According to Uruguay, it is for the Court to determine the breach, in itself, of each of these categories of obligations, and to draw the necessary conclusions in each case in terms of responsibility and reparation. 75. The Court notes that the object and purpose of the 1975 Statute, set forth in Article 1, is for the Parties to achieve “the optimum and rational utilization of the River Uruguay” by means of the “joint machinery” for co-operation, which consists of both CARU and the procedural provisions contained in Articles 7 to 12 of the Statute. - 32 - The Court has observed in this respect, in its Order of 13 July 2006, that such use should allow for sustainable development which takes account of “the need to safeguard the continued conservation of the river environment and the rights of economic development of the riparian States” (Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Provisional Measures, Order of 13 July 2006, I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 133, para. 80). 76. In the Gabčikovo-Nagymaros case, the Court, after recalling that “[t]his need to reconcile economic development with protection of the environment is aptly expressed in the concept of sustainable development”, added that “t is for the Parties themselves to find an agreed solution that takes account of the objectives of the Treaty” (Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, p. 78, paras. 140-141). 77. The Court observes that it is by co-operating that the States concerned can jointly manage the risks of damage to the environment that might be created by the plans initiated by one or other of them, so as to prevent the damage in question, through the performance of both the procedural and the substantive obligations laid down by the 1975 Statute. However, whereas the substantive obligations are frequently worded in broad terms, the procedural obligations are narrower and more specific, so as to facilitate the implementation of the 1975 Statute through a process of continuous consultation between the parties concerned. The Court has described the régime put in place by the 1975 Statute as a “comprehensive and progressive régime” (Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Provisional Measures, Order of 13 July 2006, I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 133, para. 81), since the two categories of obligations mentioned above complement one another perfectly, enabling the parties to achieve the object of the Statute which they set themselves in Article 1. 78. The Court notes that the 1975 Statute created CARU and established procedures in connection with that institution, so as to enable the parties to fulfil their substantive obligations. However, nowhere does the 1975 Statute indicate that a party may fulfil its substantive obligations by complying solely with its procedural obligations, nor that a breach of procedural obligations automatically entails the breach of substantive ones. Likewise, the fact that the parties have complied with their substantive obligations does not mean that they are deemed to have complied ipso facto with their procedural obligations, or are excused from doing so. Moreover, the link between these two categories of obligations can also be broken, in fact, when a party which has not complied with its procedural obligations subsequently abandons the implementation of its planned activity. 79. The Court considers, as a result of the above, that there is indeed a functional link, in regard to prevention, between the two categories of obligations laid down by the 1975 Statute, but that link does not prevent the States parties from being required to answer for those obligations separately, according to their specific content, and to assume, if necessary, the responsibility resulting from the breach of them, according to the circumstances. B. The procedural obligations and their interrelation 80. The 1975 Statute imposes on a party which is planning certain activities, set out in Article 7, first paragraph, procedural obligations whose content, interrelation and time-limits are specified as follows in Articles 7 to 12: - 33 - “Article 7 If one party plans to construct new channels, substantially modify or alter existing ones or carry out any other works which are liable to affect navigation, the régime of the river or the quality of its waters, it shall notify the Commission, which shall determine on a preliminary basis and within a maximum period of 30 days whether the plan might cause significant damage to the other party. If the Commission finds this to be the case or if a decision cannot be reached in that regard, the party concerned shall notify the other party of the plan through the said Commission. Such notification shall describe the main aspects of the work and, where appropriate, how it is to be carried out and shall include any other technical data that will enable the notified party to assess the probable impact of such works on navigation, the régime of the river or the quality of its waters. Article 8 The notified party shall have a period of 180 days in which to respond in connection with the plan, starting from the date on which its delegation to the Commission receives the notification. Should the documentation referred to in Article 7 be incomplete, the notified party shall have 30 days in which to so inform, through the Commission, the party which plans to carry out the work. The period of 180 days mentioned above shall begin on the date on which the delegation of the notified party receives the full documentation. This period may be extended at the discretion of the Commission if the complexity of the plan so requires. Article 9 If the notified party raises no objections or does not respond within the period established in Article 8, the other party may carry out or authorize the work planned. Article 10 The notified party shall have the right to inspect the works being carried out in order to determine whether they conform to the plan submitted. Article 11 Should the notified party come to the conclusion that the execution of the work or the programme of operations might significantly impair navigation, the régime of the river or the quality of its waters, it shall so notify the other party, through the Commission, within the period of 180 days established in Article 8. Such notification shall specify which aspects of the work or the programme of operations might significantly impair navigation, the régime of the river or the quality of its waters, the technical reasons on which this conclusion is based and the changes suggested to the plan or programme of operations. - 34 - Article 12 Should the parties fail to reach agreement within 180 days following the notification referred to in Article 11, the procedure indicated in Chapter XV shall be followed.” 81. The original Spanish text of Article 7 of the 1975 Statute reads as follows: “La parte que proyecte la construcción de nuevos canales, la modificación o alteración significativa de los ya existentes o la realización de cualesquiera otras obras de entidad suficiente para afectar la navegación, el régimen del Río o la calidad de sus aguas, deberá comunicarlo a la Comisión, la cual determinará sumariamente, y en un plazo máximo de treinta días, si el proyecto puede producir perjuicio sensible a la otra parte. Si así se resolviere o no se llegare a una decisión al respecto, la parte interesada deberá notificar el proyecto a la otra parte a través de la misma Comisión. En la notificación deberán figurar los aspectos esenciales de la obra y, si fuere el caso, el modo de su operación y los demás datos técnicos que permitan a la parte notificada hacer una evaluación del efecto probable que la obra ocasionará a la navegación, al régimen del Río o a la calidad de sus aguas.” The Court notes that, just as the original Spanish text, the French translation of this article (see paragraph 80 above) distinguishes between the obligation to inform (“comunicar”) CARU of any plan falling within its purview (first paragraph) and the obligation to notify (“notificar”) the other party (second paragraph). By contrast, the English translation uses the same verb “notify” in respect of both obligations. In order to conform to the original Spanish text, the Court will use in both linguistic versions of this Judgment the verb “inform” for the obligation set out in the first paragraph of Article 7 and the verb “notify” for the obligation set out in the second and third paragraphs. The Court considers that the procedural obligations of informing, notifying and negotiating constitute an appropriate means, accepted by the Parties, of achieving the objective which they set themselves in Article 1 of the 1975 Statute. These obligations are all the more vital when a shared resource is at issue, as in the case of the River Uruguay, which can only be protected through close and continuous co-operation between the riparian States. 82. According to Argentina, by failing to comply with the initial obligation (Article 7, first paragraph, of the 1975 Statute) to refer the matter to CARU, Uruguay frustrated all the procedures laid down in Articles 7 to 12 of the Statute. In addition, by failing to notify Argentina of the plans for the CMB (ENCE) and Orion (Botnia) mills, through CARU, with all the necessary documentation, Uruguay is said not to have complied with Article 7, second and third paragraphs. Argentina adds that informal contacts which it or CARU may have had with the companies in question cannot serve as a substitute for Uruguay referring the matter to CARU and notifying Argentina of the projects through the Commission. Argentina concludes that Uruguay has breached all of its procedural obligations under the terms of Articles 7 to 12 of the 1975 Statute. - 35 - Uruguay, for its part, considers that referring the matter to CARU does not impose so great a constraint as Argentina contends and that the parties may agree, by mutual consent, to use different channels by employing other procedural arrangements in order to engage in co-operation. It concludes from this that it has not breached the procedural obligations laid down by the 1975 Statute, even if it has performed them without following to the letter the formal process set out therein. 83. The Court will first examine the nature and role of CARU, and then consider whether Uruguay has complied with its obligations to inform CARU and to notify Argentina of its plans. 1. The nature and role of CARU 84. Uruguay takes the view that CARU, like other river commissions, is not a body with autonomous powers, but rather a mechanism established to facilitate co-operation between the Parties. It adds that the States which have created these river commissions are free to go outside the joint mechanism when it suits their purposes, and that they often do so. According to Uruguay, since CARU is not empowered to act outside the will of the Parties, the latter are free to do directly what they have decided to do through the Commission, and in particular may agree not to inform it in the manner provided for in Article 7 of the 1975 Statute. Uruguay maintains that that is precisely what happened in the present case: the two States agreed to dispense with the preliminary review by CARU and to proceed immediately to direct negotiations. 85. For Argentina, on the other hand, the 1975 Statute is not merely a bilateral treaty imposing reciprocal obligations on the parties; it establishes an institutional framework for close and ongoing co-operation, the core and essence of which is CARU. For Argentina, CARU is the key body for co-ordination between the parties in virtually all areas covered by the 1975 Statute. By failing to fulfil its obligations in this respect, Uruguay is said to be calling the 1975 Statute fundamentally into question. 86. The Court recalls that it has already described CARU as “a joint mechanism with regulatory, executive, administrative, technical and conciliatory functions, entrusted with the proper implementation of the rules contained in the 1975 Statute governing the management of the shared river resource; . . . [a] mechanism [which] constitutes a very important part of that treaty régime” (Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Provisional Measures, Order of 13 July 2006, I.C.J. Reports 2006, pp. 133-134, para. 81). 87. The Court notes, first, that CARU, in accordance with Article 50 of the 1975 Statute, was endowed with legal personality “in order to perform its functions” and that the parties to the 1975 Statute undertook to provide it with “the necessary resources and all the information and facilities essential to its operations”. Consequently, far from being merely a transmission mechanism between the parties, CARU has a permanent existence of its own; it exercises rights and also bears duties in carrying out the functions attributed to it by the 1975 Statute. - 36 - 88. While the decisions of the Commission must be adopted by common accord between the riparian States (Article 55), these are prepared and implemented by a secretariat whose staff enjoy privileges and immunities. Moreover, CARU is able to decentralize its various functions by setting up whatever subsidiary bodies it deems necessary (Article 52). 89. The Court observes that, like any international organization with legal personality, CARU is entitled to exercise the powers assigned to it by the 1975 Statute and which are necessary to achieve the object and purpose of the latter, namely, “the optimum and rational utilization of the River Uruguay” (Article 1). As the Court has pointed out, “nternational organizations are governed by the ‘principle of speciality’, that is to say, they are invested by the States which create them with powers, the limits of which are a function of the common interests whose promotion those States entrust to them” (Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 78, para. 25). This also applies of course to organizations, which like CARU, only have two member States. 90. Since CARU serves as a framework for consultation between the parties, particularly in the case of the planned works contemplated in Article 7, first paragraph, of the 1975 Statute, neither of them may depart from that framework unilaterally, as they see fit, and put other channels of communication in its place. By creating CARU and investing it with all the resources necessary for its operation, the parties have sought to provide the best possible guarantees of stability, continuity and effectiveness for their desire to co-operate in ensuring “the optimum and rational utilization of the River Uruguay”. 91. That is why CARU plays a central role in the 1975 Statute and cannot be reduced to merely an optional mechanism available to the parties which each may use or not, as it pleases. CARU operates at all levels of utilization of the river, whether concerning the prevention of transboundary harm that may result from planned activities; the use of water, on which it receives reports from the parties and verifies whether the developments taken together are liable to cause significant damage (Articles 27 and 28); the avoidance of any change in the ecological balance (Article 36); scientific studies and research carried out by one party within the jurisdiction of the other (Article 44); the exercise of the right of law enforcement (Article 46); or the right of navigation (Article 48). 92. Furthermore, CARU has been given the function of drawing up rules in many areas associated with the joint management of the river and listed in Article 56 of the 1975 Statute. Lastly, at the proposal of either party, the Commission can act as a conciliation body in any dispute which may arise between the parties (Article 58). 93. Consequently, the Court considers that, because of the scale and diversity of the functions they have assigned to CARU, the Parties intended to make that international organization a central component in the fulfilment of their obligations to co-operate as laid down by the 1975 Statute. 2. Uruguay’s obligation to inform CARU 94. The Court notes that the obligation of the State initiating the planned activity to inform CARU constitutes the first stage in the procedural mechanism as a whole which allows the two parties to achieve the object of the 1975 Statute, namely, the optimum and rational utilization of - 37 - the River Uruguay”. This stage, provided for in Article 7, first paragraph, involves the State which is initiating the planned activity informing CARU thereof, so that the latter can determine “on a preliminary basis” and within a maximum period of 30 days whether the plan might cause significant damage to the other party. 95. To enable the remainder of the procedure to take its course, the parties have included alternative conditions in the 1975 Statute: either that the activity planned by one party should be liable, in CARU’s opinion, to cause significant damage to the other, creating an obligation of prevention for the first party to eliminate or minimize the risk, in consultation with the other party; or that CARU, having been duly informed, should not have reached a decision in that regard within the prescribed period. 96. The Court notes that the Parties are agreed in considering that the two planned mills were works of sufficient importance to fall within the scope of Article 7 of the 1975 Statute, and thus for CARU to have been informed of them. The same applies to the plan to construct a port terminal at Fray Bentos for the exclusive use of the Orion (Botnia) mill, which included dredging work and use of the river bed. 97. However, the Court observes that the Parties disagree on whether there is an obligation to inform CARU in respect of the extraction and use of water from the river for industrial purposes by the Orion (Botnia) mill. Argentina takes the view that the authorization granted by the Uruguayan Ministry of Transport and Public Works on 12 September 2006 concerns an activity of sufficient importance (“entidad suficiente”) to affect the régime of the river or the quality of its waters and that, in this matter, Uruguay should have followed the procedure laid down in Articles 7 to 12 of the 1975 Statute. For its part, Uruguay maintains that this activity forms an integral part of the Orion (Botnia) mill project as a whole, and that the 1975 Statute does not require CARU to be informed of each step in furtherance of the planned works. 98. The Court points out that while the Parties are agreed in recognizing that CARU should have been informed of the two planned mills and the plan to construct the port terminal at Fray Bentos, they nonetheless differ as regards the content of the information which should be provided to CARU and as to when this should take place. 99. Argentina has argued that the content of the obligation to inform must be determined in the light of its objective, which is to prevent threats to navigation, the régime of the river or the quality of the waters. According to Argentina, the plan which CARU must be informed of may be at a very early stage, since it is simply a matter of allowing the Commission to “determine on a preliminary basis”, within a very short period of 30 days, whether the plan “might cause significant damage to the other party”. It is only in the following phase of the procedure that the substance of the obligation to inform is said to become more extensive. In Argentina’s view, however, CARU must be informed prior to the authorization or implementation of a project on the River Uruguay. 100. Citing the terms of Article 7, first paragraph, of the 1975 Statute, Uruguay gives a different interpretation of it, taking the view that the requirement to inform CARU specified by this provision cannot occur in the very early stages of planning, because there could not be sufficient information available to the Commission for it to determine whether or not the plan might cause - 38 - significant damage to the other State. For that, according to Uruguay, the project would have to have reached a stage where all the technical data on it are available. As the Court will consider further below, Uruguay seeks to link the content of the information to the time when it should be provided, which may even be after the State concerned has granted an initial environmental authorization. 101. The Court points out that the principle of prevention, as a customary rule, has its origins in the due diligence that is required of a State in its territory. It is “every State’s obligation not to allow knowingly its territory to be used for acts contrary to the rights of other States” (Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 22). A State is thus obliged to use all the means at its disposal in order to avoid activities which take place in its territory, or in any area under its jurisdiction, causing significant damage to the environment of another State. This Court has established that this obligation “is now part of the corpus of international law relating to the environment” (Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 242, para. 29). 102. In the view of the Court, the obligation to inform CARU allows for the initiation of co-operation between the Parties which is necessary in order to fulfil the obligation of prevention. This first procedural stage results in the 1975 Statute not being applied to activities which would appear to cause damage only to the State in whose territory they are carried out. 103. The Court observes that with regard to the River Uruguay, which constitutes a shared resource, “significant damage to the other party” (Article 7, first paragraph, of the 1975 Statute) may result from impairment of navigation, the régime of the river or the quality of its waters. Moreover, Article 27 of the 1975 Statute stipulates that: “[t]he right of each party to use the waters of the river, within its jurisdiction, for domestic, sanitary, industrial and agricultural purposes shall be exercised without prejudice to the application of the procedure laid down in Articles 7 to 12 when the use is liable to affect the régime of the river or the quality of its waters”. 104. The Court notes that, in accordance with the terms of Article 7, first paragraph, the information which must be provided to CARU, at this initial stage of the procedure, has to enable it to determine swiftly and on a preliminary basis whether the plan might cause significant damage to the other party. For CARU, at this stage, it is a question of deciding whether or not the plan falls under the co-operation procedure laid down by the 1975 Statute, and not of pronouncing on its actual impact on the river and the quality of its waters. This explains, in the opinion of the Court, the difference between the terminology of the first paragraph of Article 7, concerning the requirement to inform CARU, and that of the third paragraph, concerning the content of the notification to be addressed to the other party at a later stage, enabling it “to assess the probable impact of such works on navigation, the régime of the river or the quality of its waters”. 105. The Court considers that the State planning activities referred to in Article 7 of the Statute is required to inform CARU as soon as it is in possession of a plan which is sufficiently developed to enable CARU to make the preliminary assessment (required by paragraph 1 of that - 39 - provision) of whether the proposed works might cause significant damage to the other party. At that stage, the information provided will not necessarily consist of a full assessment of the environmental impact of the project, which will often require further time and resources, although, where more complete information is available, this should, of course, be transmitted to CARU to give it the best possible basis on which to make its preliminary assessment. In any event, the duty to inform CARU will become applicable at the stage when the relevant authority has had the project referred to it with the aim of obtaining initial environmental authorization and before the granting of that authorization. 106. The Court observes that, in the present case, Uruguay did not transmit to CARU the information required by Article 7, first paragraph, in respect of the CMB (ENCE) and Orion (Botnia) mills, despite the requests made to it by the Commission to that effect on several occasions, in particular on 17 October 2002 and 21 April 2003 with regard to the CMB (ENCE) mill, and on 16 November 2004 with regard to the Orion (Botnia) mill. Uruguay merely sent CARU, on 14 May 2003, a summary for public release of the environmental impact assessment for the CMB (ENCE) mill. CARU considered this document to be inadequate and again requested further information from Uruguay on 15 August 2003 and 12 September 2003. Moreover, Uruguay did not transmit any document to CARU regarding the Orion (Botnia) mill. Consequently, Uruguay issued the initial environmental authorizations to CMB on 9 October 2003 and to Botnia on 14 February 2005 without complying with the procedure laid down in Article 7, first paragraph. Uruguay therefore came to a decision on the environmental impact of the projects without involving CARU, thereby simply giving effect to Article 17, third paragraph, of Uruguayan Decree No. 435/994 of 21 September 1994, Environmental Impact Assessment Regulation, according to which the Ministry of Housing, Land Use Planning and Environmental Affairs may grant the initial environmental authorization provided that the adverse environmental impacts of the project remain within acceptable limits. 107. The Court further notes that on 12 April 2005 Uruguay granted an authorization to Botnia for the first phase of the construction of the Orion (Botnia) mill and, on 5 July 2005, an authorization to construct a port terminal for its exclusive use and to utilize the river bed for industrial purposes, without informing CARU of these projects in advance. 108. With regard to the extraction and use of water from the river, of which CARU should have first been informed, according to Argentina, the Court takes the view that this is an activity which forms an integral part of the commissioning of the Orion (Botnia) mill and therefore did not require a separate referral to CARU. 109. However, Uruguay maintains that CARU was made aware of the plans for the mills by representatives of ENCE on 8 July 2002, and no later than 29 April 2004 by representatives of Botnia, before the initial environmental authorizations were issued. Argentina, for its part, considers that these so-called private dealings, whatever form they may have taken, do not constitute performance of the obligation imposed on the Parties by Article 7, first paragraph. 110. The Court considers that the information on the plans for the mills which reached CARU via the companies concerned or from other non-governmental sources cannot substitute for the obligation to inform laid down in Article 7, first paragraph, of the 1975 Statute, which is borne by the party planning to construct the works referred to in that provision. Similarly, in the case concerning Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France), the Court observed that - 40 - “f the information eventually came to Djibouti through the press, the information disseminated in this way could not be taken into account for the purposes of the application of Article 17 [of the Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters between the two countries, providing that ‘[r]easons shall be given for any refusal of mutual assistance’]” (Judgment of 4 June 2008, para. 150). 111. Consequently, the Court concludes from the above that Uruguay, by not informing CARU of the planned works before the issuing of the initial environmental authorizations for each of the mills and for the port terminal adjacent to the Orion (Botnia) mill, has failed to comply with the obligation imposed on it by Article 7, first paragraph, of the 1975 Statute. 3. Uruguay’s obligation to notify the plans to the other party 112. The Court notes that, under the terms of Article 7, second paragraph, of the 1975 Statute, if CARU decides that the plan might cause significant damage to the other party or if a decision cannot be reached in that regard, “the party concerned shall notify the other party of this plan through the said Commission”. Article 7, third paragraph, of the 1975 Statute sets out in detail the content of this notification, which “shall describe the main aspects of the work and . . . any other technical data that will enable the notified party to assess the probable impact of such works on navigation, the régime of the river or the quality of its waters”. 113. In the opinion of the Court, the obligation to notify is intended to create the conditions for successful co-operation between the parties, enabling them to assess the plan’s impact on the river on the basis of the fullest possible information and, if necessary, to negotiate the adjustments needed to avoid the potential damage that it might cause. 114. Article 8 stipulates a period of 180 days, which may be extended by the Commission, for the notified party to respond in connection with the plan, subject to it requesting the other party, through the Commission, to supplement as necessary the documentation it has provided. If the notified party raises no objections, the other party may carry out or authorize the work (Article 9). Otherwise, the former must notify the latter of those aspects of the work which may cause it damage and of the suggested changes (Article 11), thereby opening a further 180-day period of negotiation in which to reach an agreement (Article 12). 115. The obligation to notify is therefore an essential part of the process leading the parties to consult in order to assess the risks of the plan and to negotiate possible changes which may eliminate those risks or minimize their effects. 116. The Parties agree on the need for a full environmental impact assessment in order to assess any significant damage which might be caused by a plan. - 41 - 117. Uruguay takes the view that such assessments were carried out in accordance with its legislation (Decree No. 435/994 of 21 September 1994, Environmental Impact Assessment Regulation), submitted to DINAMA for consideration and transmitted to Argentina on 7 November 2003 in the case of the CMB (ENCE) project and on 19 August 2005 for the Orion (Botnia) project. According to Uruguay, DINAMA asked the companies concerned for all the additional information that was required to supplement the original environmental impact assessments submitted to it, and only when it was satisfied did it propose to the Ministry of the Environment that the initial environmental authorizations requested should be issued, which they were to CMB on 9 October 2003 and to Botnia on 14 February 2005. Uruguay maintains that it was not required to transmit the environmental impact assessments to Argentina before issuing the initial environmental authorizations to the companies, these authorizations having been adopted on the basis of its legislation on the subject. 118. Argentina, for its part, first points out that the environmental impact assessments transmitted to it by Uruguay were incomplete, particularly in that they made no provision for alternative sites for the mills and failed to include any consultation of the affected populations. The Court will return later in the Judgment to the substantive conditions which must be met by environmental impact assessments (see paragraphs 203 to 219). Furthermore, in procedural terms, Argentina considers that the initial environmental authorizations should not have been granted to the companies before it had received the complete environmental impact assessments, and that it was unable to exercise its rights in this context under Articles 7 to 11 of the 1975 Statute. 119. The Court notes that the environmental impact assessments which are necessary to reach a decision on any plan that is liable to cause significant transboundary harm to another State must be notified by the party concerned to the other party, through CARU, pursuant to Article 7, second and third paragraphs, of the 1975 Statute. This notification is intended to enable the notified party to participate in the process of ensuring that the assessment is complete, so that it can then consider the plan and its effects with a full knowledge of the facts (Article 8 of the 1975 Statute). 120. The Court observes that this notification must take place before the State concerned decides on the environmental viability of the plan, taking due account of the environmental impact assessment submitted to it. 121. In the present case, the Court observes that the notification to Argentina of the environmental impact assessments for the CMB (ENCE) and Orion (Botnia) mills did not take place through CARU, and that Uruguay only transmitted those assessments to Argentina after having issued the initial environmental authorizations for the two mills in question. Thus in the case of CMB (ENCE), the matter was notified to Argentina on 27 October and 7 November 2003, whereas the initial environmental authorization had already been issued on 9 October 2003. In the case of Orion (Botnia), the file was transmitted to Argentina between August 2005 and January 2006, whereas the initial environmental authorization had been granted on 14 February 2005. Uruguay ought not, prior to notification, to have issued the initial environmental authorizations and the authorizations for construction on the basis of the environmental impact assessments submitted to DINAMA. Indeed by doing so, Uruguay gave priority to its own legislation over its procedural obligations under the 1975 Statute and disregarded - 42 - the well-established customary rule reflected in Article 27 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, according to which “[a] party may not invoke the provisions of its internal law as justification for its failure to perform a treaty”. 122. The Court concludes from the above that Uruguay failed to comply with its obligation to notify the plans to Argentina through CARU under Article 7, second and third paragraphs, of the 1975 Statute. C. Whether the Parties agreed to derogate from the procedural obligations set out in the 1975 Statute 123. Having thus examined the procedural obligations laid down by the 1975 Statute, the Court now turns to the question of whether the Parties agreed, by mutual consent, to derogate from them, as alleged by Uruguay.

Por Invitado Viejo Golanchik,
20 de Abril del 2010 en Cafetería

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Fallo de La Haya tema Botnia